MARK BUTZ

Introduction

There are numerous limestone lenses amid the Silurian and Devonian formations  in the  Canberra area,  including  a number of karsts surrounded by impervious volcanic rocks. Most of  the karsts  are very  small -  only a few metres thick and  less than  a kilometre  long - and few contain caves.   Where caves are found they are usually small and short, but  of  reasonable  complexity  (Nicoll  &  Brush 1976b).

For these  reasons, the  significance of  the  karst  and caves around  Canberra has  been long underestimated, but such areas  are now  receiving  higher  priority  in  the resource management  programmes  of  the  ACT  Parks  and Conservation  Service,   part  of   the   Department   of Territories.  This Service, established early in 1984, is responsible  for   management  of  natural  and  cultural resources, wildlife  and open space recreation throughout the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and the Jervis Bay Territory, and  in the  Commonwealth  Reserve  associated with the Googong Reservoir in New South Wales (NSW).

Within the  areas managed  by the  Service are  found the Paddys River  (or Cotter)  Caves, the  London Bridge  and associated caves,  and scattered  lesser  karsts  on  the plain now  occupied  by  the  city  area  and  along  the Murrumbidgee  and   lower  Molonglo  Rivers.  These,  and another karst  on the  Queanbeyan River  in NSW  known as White Rocks, are described and discussed in this paper.

Canberra City Area

Few residents  of, or visitors to, the ACT would be aware of the  widespread occurrence of limestone in what is now the city  area, as  the imposition  of the  grand layout, buildings and  monuments  of  the  national  capital  has markedly blurred  landscape features  other than the most prominent hills and ridges.

In the  first printed account of what is now the Canberra area, Charles  Throsby described ‘very fine limestone, in quantities  perfectly   inexhaustible’  (cited  by  Fitz-hardinge 1954). By 1822 this description was reflected in the name  of Limestone  Plains (Lea-Scarlett 1968). Early geological descriptions  and  maps  (e.g.  Pittman  1911) showed the Plains were dotted with outcrops of limestone, and these  were evident  along the  Molonglo River and at important crossing points.  Early photo-graphs (e.g. Opik 1958) show  that the  plain which  now  accommodates  the ‘garden  city’   was  largely  treeless  and  even  small limestone  outcrops   and  waterfilled   sinkholes   were conspicuous in the landscape.?

Parts  of   limestone  outcrops   were  being  exploited, presumably for  lime to  manufacture mortar, by 1833 when Surveyor Hoddle  recorded a limestone quarry in the Acton area (Knight  1973) and remains of a limeburner’s cottage have been  recorded in  the Majura area, believed to date from about the same period (Winston-Gregson 1985).  Early economic   appraisals   suggested   that   the   Canberra limestones could beneficially be used for the manufacture of mortar  and cement,  expected to  be of great value to the construction  of the  new capital city (Pittman 1911) and their  suitability for  road  metal  was  also  noted (Strusz 1971).   Despite  this apparent value, only a few minor quarries  have been  recorded  (Mahony  and  Taylor 1913), and  these were  closed prior  to the  late  1950s (Opik 1958).   Limestone  from Acton  was also tested and found to  be suitable  as polished  marble  for  interior decoration (Mahony  and Taylor 1913) but no quarrying for this purpose is recorded.

Many of  the limestones  were richly  fossiliferous,  and important specimens  were collected by L.G. deKoninck and Rev. W.B.  Clarke in  the 1870s, yielding a rich fauna of corals,  shells,   bryozoans,  crinoids  and  trilobites. These were  the  first  record  of  Silurian  fossils  in Australia (Rosengren  1985). Of particular note are sites at Woolshed  Creek, Mount  Majura, Red  Hill  and  Jerra-bomberra Creek (Mahony and Taylor 1913).

The cavernous  nature of  some of  the  karsts  is  well-documented.  A.P. Spate (cited by Matthews 1985) recorded the Limestone Plains (or Lennox House) Cave with the note ‘contains lake’;  this is something of an understatement, as it  lies submerged  under Lake  Burley Griffin.   This cave has  a length  of about eight metres (Matthews 1985) and was  used for some time as a rubbish tip (A.P. Spate, pers. comm.).   It is believed to have been the only cave on the  Plains which  was open to the surface (Nicoll and Brush 1975a),  but others made their presence felt as the city was  being developed.   Foundation  excavations  and geological  investigations   for  major   buildings   and structures from  the 1950s  to the  1970s  confirmed  the presence of cavernous limestones beneath central Canberra (Henderson 1986; Butz 1987).

The proposed  weir at  Acton -  one of the possible sites for a  dam to  impound Canberra’s  proposed  lake  -  was abandoned due to fears of excessive water leakage through the  cavernous   limestones  encountered  there  (Gardner 1958).   When construction began on the Treasury Building in the  1960s, extensive  caves were  uncovered below the site.  These extend from eight to thirty-six metres below the surface  through  a  richly  fossiliferous  limestone layer that  is over fifty metres deep in places (Best and Henderson 1968).   The discovery of caves under the whole site led  to some  extensive  alterations  to  foundation design, and  some piers  had to  be  founded  within  the limestone at  depths of  twenty to  thirty  metres  below excavated rock  surface - in some cases well in excess of the building’s  height (Gardner  1969).   The caves  also posed a  problem for  de-watering the building site; even pumping at 180,000 litres per hour made little impression on water levels (Best and Henderson 1968).

Alerted to  the potential for such construction problems, geologists  located  another  large  cavernous  limestone deposit at  the site  of the Trade Building, extending in depth from  six metres  below the  surface to  over fifty metres, with  the shallowest caves at about twenty metres depth (Hill  1971).  The hidden caves would not have been a total  surprise had  an earlier  encounter been  better documented.   So much cavernous limestone was encountered when the  city’s main outfall sewer was being constructed in the 1920s from the Hotel Canberra to Weston Creek that the foreman  in charge of driving the tunnel declared his belief that the proposed lake would never be able to hold water (Dalgarno and Minty 1983).

The ACT  Parks and Conservation Service can do nothing to conserve the  lost karsts  which now  lie under the lake, gardens, roads  or  buildings.  However,  some  solution-sculpted limestone  on the  foreshore at  Acton Peninsula above the drowned Limestone Plains Cave will be protected from any  further damage,  and interpreted  in a proposed Bicentennial Heritage  Trail (J. Feint, pers. comm.) as a meagre link  to  the  earliest  description,  naming  and settlement of  the area.   The educational and scientific values  of   the  more   significant  fossils  sites  are recognised and  an effort  will be  made to protect these from development and uncontrolled collecting.

Paddys River Caves

The Paddys  River (or  Cotter) Caves  escaped the fate of the Limestone Plains complex by their relative isolation. They lie  about twenty  kilometres west  of Canberra in a steep outcrop  up to fifty metres above the south bank of the Paddys  River.   The  limestone  here  is  about  one hundred metres  long and  forty metres  thick, tilted  to near  vertical,   and metamorphosed   to  marble  by  an intrusion of  adamellite (Owen  and Wyborn  1979).    The deposit  has  not  been  economically  exploited  despite favourable reporting  of its  suitability as  a ‘handsome ornamental stone’  after successful polishing (Mahony and Taylor  1913).    Because  of  the  metamorphic  effects, fossils in  the outcrop  tend to  be limited  to  crinoid stems (Rosengren 1985).

Three caves  have been  described -  the  Cotter,  Powder Store and  Blasted Caves. The lengths of these are sixty-five, fourteen  and twenty metres respectively.  All were probably interconnected  and formed  by  the  one  stream (Nicoll and Brush 1975a).

The values of the karst area and its environs are gaining wide  recognition:   The  National   Capital  Development Commission  (NCDC)   have  registered   the  caves  as  a geological monument  (NCDC 1984)  and a  larger area as a Site of  Significance (Rosengren 1985), and they are also listed on  the Register  of the National Estate (AHC data file) and  on the Register of Classified Places (National Estate (AHC  data file) and on the Register of Classified Places (National  Trust 1982).  To  give  force  to  such listings a  great deal more attention needs to be paid to management for long-term conservation. Past management  has been  marred by lack of awareness of the area’s values, inappropriate design and construction, fragmentation   of   responsibility   and   a   lack   of consultation  with   community  interests.  Despite  some heavy-handed gating,  access to the caves has rarely been controlled. From the combined effect of this unsupervised access and unsympathetic management nearly all accessible speleothems  have   been  removed   or  destroyed,  floor deposits have  been  altered,  roosting  bats  caused  to vacate and  the caves  littered and  defaced. This legacy has led  to a  view of  the  lost  caves  as  ‘no  longer sensitive’ (Rosengren  1985) or  as a lost cause, leaving them open  to proposals  for development  as a recreation asset at the expense of other values.

Rather  than  accept  this  view  of  expendability,  the Service would  prefer to  recognise that  the caves are a non-renewable resource  and have  intrinsic value  as the only accessible  caves in  the ACT  to survive Canberra’s construction.

Specimens of  cave-dwelling spiders  have been  collected from  the   Cotter  Cave,   including  Stiphidon  facetum (AP Spate, pers.  comm.)  and  Epimecinus  sp.nov.  (Gray 1973). While these species also utilise surface habitats, all cave  invertebrates are  significant elements  of the biota  (Poulson  and  White  1969)  and  their  continued survival may require careful management (Reider 1977).

The Cotter  Cave is  still sometimes  occupied  by  bent-winged  bats  (Miniopterus  schreibersi)  and  this  cave (together with  a nearby  water supply  tunnel at  Cotter Dam) may  be an important staging point between maternity caves at Wee Jasper and coastal roosting sites (AP Spate, pers. comm.). In 1958, the first recovery in Australia of a banded  bat occurred at the Cotter tunnel, fifteen days after the bat was banded at Wee Jasper, thirty kilometres to  the   north-west.  This   was  the  start  of  a  new understanding of  seasonal bat  migrations,  biology  and life  cycles   (Purchase  1962).   There  has  also  been speculation that  the caves  may be an overwintering site for the bats (C.R. Tidemann, pers. comm.). This implies a need to  control public  access  (Voute  and  Lina  1986) although the  existing  gating  would  require  extensive modification to facilitate bat movement (Tuttle 1977).

Other bat  species  that  inhabit  caves  have  not  been examined for  stratified bone  deposits  or  evidence  of prehistoric occupation  (JH Hope,  pers. comm.)  although the Cotter  Cave has  considerable potential  to  contain occupation  evidence  due  to  ample  headroom,  daylight entry, a  view over  the river,  and close  proximity  to recorded Aboriginal  campsites.  Such deposits and traces in caves have great scientific importance (Jennings 1979) and a  trial stratigraphic  excavation should  be made in these  caves   before   any   further   developments   or modifications are effected.

The caves have a physical and historical association with an  adjacent  mineral  deposit  at  the  contact  of  the limestone and  adamellite.   This is  a  magnetite  skarn containing small  quantities of  lead, silver, zinc, gold (Smith 1963)  and the  Congwarra Copper  Lode  was  first prospected in 1895 (Smith 1963) and prospecting continued until 1908, and again in 1946 (Owen and Wyborn 1979).  At an early  stage there was an adit up to thirty-six into the  copper lode  (Jaquet 1901)  and at  least three other adits  and seven  pits were shown on   a surveyor’s plan of  1917 (Barz  and  Winston-Gregson  1982).    Mine remains still  visible include  a pit and a partly closed adit.   The particular usefulness of Powder Store Cave to the miners is self-evident.  This is the only significant mining area  known in the ACT and is thus of considerable historic importance  in the  Territory (Barz and Winston-Gregson 1982).

The combination  of  karst  landform,  surface  solution, contact metamorphism,  mineralisation  and  mine  remains make this  a valuable geological teaching site (Rosengren 1985; Deverson  et al. 1986) but the potential for damage or destruction  of the  mine remains  is considerable and some restriction  of public  access may  be essential for           conservation of  the remains  (Barz  and  Winston-Gregson 1982).

Adding another  dimension to  the conservation  values of the precinct  is  the  only  ACT  occurrence  of  a  rare perennial herb, Drabastrum alpestre, located in grassland adjacent to the caves and mine remains.  The conservation of this  feature too,  may require  some  restriction  of public access (Briggs and Leigh 1985).

The area  has another interesting association in an early account  of   the  Federal  Territory  which  provided  a commentary, rare  for its  time, on  the relation  of the vegetation to the geology:

The limestone  supports a  growth of  she-oaks;  the sandstones, eucalypts;  and the  decomposed  igneous rock with  their associated  and very distinct types of vegetation,  forms a  most interesting example of the interdependence  of the trees and the underlying strata. (Mahony and Taylor 1913).

The   themes    of   soluble    terrain,    cave-dwelling invertebrates and  bats, possible  bone  deposits  and/or prehistoric occupation,  enhance the  importance  of  the area for  promotion of  the values  of karst and caves in the community  in general, and schools in particular.  In Heritage Week  1987 the  first public  guided tour of the caves and mine remains was conducted by the ACT Parks and Conservation  Service   and  the  Geological  Society  of Australia.   The area  could be  of great significance to the  Service  in  its  education  programs,  but  careful planning and  a conservative                                   approach to development and use are required in view of the fragility and sensitivity of some of the features.

Proposals for  the future  management of the area will be subject to comment by the community during preparation of the Service’s  draft management plan for the Murrumbidgee River corridor.

Molongolo and Murrumbidgee Rivers

A number  of small  limestone deposits  outcrop along the Molonglo and  Murrumbidgee  Rivers.  None  of  these  are significant as  karsts, although  they  do  exhibit  some surface   solution    features.   All,    however,    are fossiliferous and  their Middle Silurian faunas have been useful for stratigraphic correlation (Rosengren 1985).

Part of  the complex  along the  Molonglo, ten kilometres west of Canberra, has been greatly disturbed by blasting, excavation and  road construction  for  a  sewer  outfall pipeline (Henderson 1980) but a number of outcrops remain largely   intact.    These,   together    with   adjacent fossiliferous shales,  constitute a  site of considerable scientific and  educational value  as  one  of  the  best documented  fossil  fauna  assemblages  from  the  Middle Silurian of eastern Australia (Rosengren 1985).

Both these  sites are  listed as Sites of Significance by the  NCDC  (Rosengren  1985)  and  their  scientific  and educational values  will be recognised in development and management  decisions   which  could  affect  them.  Some control may  need to  be exerted  over fossil collecting, and this  may require  appropriate signposting  or even a     special-purpose conservation  reserve. Maintenance of the existing limitations  on public access should be probably afford sufficient protection for the time being.

London Bridge

The London  Bridge limestone  is situated in NSW on Burra Creek, a  tributary of the Queanbeyan River, about thirty kilometres south-east  of Canberra  City.   The site  was first described  in the  journal of  Captain Mark Currie, RN, describing  his 1823 journey of exploration, in which he discovered  the Monaro  Plains.  On his return journey folklore has it that Currie was shown the Bridge by local Aborigines (P.  Higginbotham, pers. comm.).  He described it as  ‘a natural bridge of one perfect Saxon arch, under which the  water passed’  (Currie 1825),  but he  made no mention of  any caves.   The Bridge has been a well-known landmark since  settlement began  in the  immediate  area during the 1830s (Moore 1981) but access was very limited in recent  decades due  to the  protectiveness  of  local landowners.

The area  received some  notoriety  through  the  ‘London Bridge mystery’  with the  discovery  in  1875  of  human (supposedly European)  bones in  a small cave near Burra, leading to  an inconclusive  coronial inquest and rumours of  murders   committed  by   bushrangers  (Moore  1981). Another  storey,   seemingly   unrelated,   reports   the discovery in  1874 of  `a veritable  catacomb’ containing `many hundreds of human bones and skulls, centuries old’. These were  carried away  by the bagful and pronounced by three  surgeons,   including  the  Coroner,  to  be  `the skeletons of  the Aborigines  of former  times’  (Brennan 1907).   It has been widely believed that such Aboriginal cave burials are rare in the region (Flood 1980) but more recent analysis suggests that caves were used for burials (Spate, in prep.).

The London  Bridge has  been widely investigated and well documented in  scientific  literature.    The  geological characteristics were  recorded about  seventy  years  ago (Carne and  Jones 1919) describing a fairly pure white to dark grey  fossiliferous limestone interspersed with thin shale bands  and intruded  by small  granitic dykes.  The outcrop  was   not  considered  to  have  great  economic potential due  to relative  isolation and, as was stated: ‘it would,  indeed, be  vandalism to  interfere  with  so remarkable a feature as London Bridge’ (Mahony and Taylor 1913).

The limestone’s rich fossil fauna of brachiopods, corals, crinoids and  trilobites and  its relationship  to  other outcrops to  the north  and  south  have  been  described (Veevers 1953). The closest related outcrop, near the old ‘London Bridge’  homestead, has  no caves  but does  have many  fossils,   an  interesting  metamorphic  occurrence (Richardson 1979) and, therefore, some educational value.

The geomorphic features of the site have been interpreted as  a  natural  bridge  and  caves  formed  from  complex repeated stream self-capture by karst action in a meander spur (Jennings  et al. 1976);  it is  a classical example cited in international texts on karst geomorphology (e.g. Jennings 1985).   The  arch is  thirty-four metres  long, twelve to  fifteen metres  wide at water level, and about five metres  high above  normal summer  water level.  Six additional entrances  are known,  relating to  two  minor caves  of  four  to  five  metres  length  and  the  more substantial Burra  and Douglas Caves of about thirty-five and forty  metres length  respectively (Nicoll  and Brush 1976a).

For some years speleologists and geomorphologists, led by the late Joe Jennings, made representations to Government to establish  London Bridge  as a  geological monument in recognition of  its outstanding  scientific interest  and natural beauty  and to  open  it  to  the  public  as  an educational and  recreational area (Jennings et al 1976). The area’s  scientific and  educational value was further reinforced by  the recording of significant bone deposits in a  number of  the caves  including remains  of  mammal species now  locally extinct  (Hope 1976).  The  sediment accumulation  in   the  Douglas   Cave  has  considerable potential to yield sub-fossil material. It is likely that this is  the ‘very  spacious cave,  which bore  traces of having been  used in  early times by Aborigines’ (Brennan 1907) and  it still  may contain  evidence of  Aboriginal occupation.   No excavation  has yet  been attempted  but careful stratigraphic investigation is well warranted (JH Hope, pers. comm.).

In 1975 the Commonwealth acquired land for the  protection of the  foreshores of the newest element of the Canberra-Queanbeyan water  supply, Googong  Reservoir, and  in the process acquired the London Bridge.  For some time it was feared that  this karst too, would be drowned. That these fears proved  groundless was due far more to the Bridge’s elevation above  sea level  than to  the sensibilities of planning engineers.   The  environmental impact statement (EIS) for  the project  recognised only the tourism value of the  feature and  assessed only  the  likely  physical impact of  flood waters  on the rock itself.  Other karst values   were   omitted   completely,   despite   several submissions on  the need to save the Bridge (NCDC and Dow 1973).  Such shortcomings could perhaps be excused by the fact that this was the first EIS to be prepared under the Commonwealth  Environmental    Protection   (Impact   of Proposals) Act 1974 (Dalgarno and Minty 1983).

In 1982  the southern  half  of  the  Googong  Foreshores Reserve was  opened to the public, thus affording to many local residents  and visitors  their first  view  of  the London Bridge.   Access  was made  available by a walking track, with the closest vehicular access at a distance of less than  a kilometre.  The formation has been nominated to the                                Register of  the National Estate (AHC data file), and in that sense might be seen as a geological monument.

While  the   aspirations  of   speleologists  have   been partially met  by the  provision  of  better  access  and nearby recreational  facilities, and  by National  Estate recognition,  the   educational  effort   is  at  best  a fledgling one.   A  general information  leaflet for  the Reserve includes  a summary  of the  history and  mode of formation of  the Bridge.  A  number  of  the  dates  and inferences are  inaccurate (AP Spate,  pers.  comm.)  but this is being remedied. The leaflet associates the Bridge with the  nearby ‘London Bridge’ homestead - a feature of major historical  and architectural  interest (Philip Cox 1983) which  is  listed  on  both  the  Register  of  the National Estate  (AHC data  file)  and  the  Register  of Classified Places  (National Trust 1982). The Service has been offering  guided walks  to the  homestead and Bridge for some  years and  these have  proved very  popular (P. Higginbotham, pers. comm.).

White Rocks

The White  Rocks karst  area is located on the Queanbeyan River about sixteen kilometres south-east of Canberra and three kilometres south of Queanbeyan in NSW. It comprises lenses of  Middle Silurian  shale and  limestone, folded, faulted and  tilted to  near vertical.  The white to pink recrystallised limestone  has given  the area  its  name, forming cliffs up to fifty metres above the river in four main outcrops (Mahony and Taylor 1913). Within these only one cave  has been  tagged and  described -  White  Rocks Cave, about ten metres long, with no    decoration.  Past quarrying in  the limestone has revealed remains of other cave passages  now filled  with sediment,  flowstone  and bone  conglomerate,   but  has   also  led  to  hazardous rockfalls and  unstable faces. The outcrop on the eastern side of  the river  has not  yet been  examined for caves (Nicoll and Brush 1975b).

A number  of  geological  features  are  of  considerable interest,  including   some  remarkable  corrugation  and crumpling  of  the  limestone  due  to  pressure  folding (Mahony and Taylor 1913), but the scientific value of the area rests  primarily on  the presence  of  bone  breccia exposed by  quarrying  (Nicoll  and  Brush  1975b).  This breccia contains small and medium-sized bones of a number of mammal species (Hope 1976). Such exhumed fossiliferous cave fill  can provide  valuable stratified  evidence for interpretation of  prehistoric  fauna  and  environmental change (Jennings 1979).

A number  of quarries have been recorded (Smith 1950) and two old  kilns remain to suggest one of the uses to which the limestone was put (Nicoll and Brush 1975b). While the outcrops  still   have  economical  potential,  they  are unlikely  to   be  exploited  due  to  the  environmental sensitivity of the area (Lishmund et al. 1986). The karst is probably  more at  risk from  uncontrolled access from nearby urban  areas and  small-acre subdivisions,  and is often visited  by trail-bike  riders and  rubbish-dumpers (AP Spate, pers.  comm.).   Permanent reservation  of the area by  the NSW  National Parks  and Wildlife Service is probably not  as readily justified as measures to protect or salvage  remaining bone  deposits. Further  excavation and study  of these  deposits is  warranted,  perhaps  in conjunction with  that  already  recommended  for  London Bridge, and  the values  of  the  whole  area  should  be subject  to   comprehensive  appraisal   before   further degradation occurs.The Management Challenges

The significance  of the  karsts in the Canberra area can be described in the following terms (after Davey 1984):

* the  remains of the Limestone Plains karsts are of some value  as   cultural  features   for  historic   enquiry, education and presentation;
* London Bridge is an outstanding example of its landform type,   and   is   highly   significant   for   aesthetic appreciation;
* both  London Bridge and Paddys River Caves are of great value for  education and presentation, and for scientific enquiry as  examples of  natural features, landscapes and natural processes;
* both  London Bridge and Paddys River Caves are of great value as  cultural features  for prehistoric and historic enquiry, education and presentation;
* both  London Bridge  and  Paddys  River  Caves  provide valuable recreation opportunities;
* fossil sites in the city area and in the lower Molonglo and Murrumbidgee  outcrops are of value for education and presentation, and  for scientific  enquiry as examples of natural features  and  also  as  cultural  features  with interesting associations; and
* the  White Rocks  karst  is  of  value  for  scientific enquiry as an example of a natural feature or landscape.

There are  conflicts readily  apparent  in  managing  the karst areas  and their  environs  for  such  a  range  of values, and each poses different challenges to managers.

All that  can be  done for  the last  traces of the ‘lost karsts’ in  the city  area is  to protect  them from  any further degradation  and to  interpret their  role in the area’s history.   Remaining  fossil sites in the city and in the  lower Molonglo  and Murrumbidgee outcrops need to receive similar  protection  from  development  and  from uncontrolled fossil collecting.

The Paddys River Caves present a particular challenge: to redress  the   impact  of   many  years  of  inconsistent management, to  commence a  thorough investigation of the scientific values  of  the  area,  and  to  overcome  the misconception that  the caves are no longer sensitive and can thus  be sacrificed to recreational development or to careless educational use.

Free of  the kinds  of  constraints  inherited  with  the Paddys River  Caves, the Service has been fortunate to be able to  maintain the qualities of the magnificent London Bridge and  associated cultural  remains, but  we need to sustain this  capability in the face of increased visitor use.   Of particular  importance  is  the  protection  of deposits of                sub-fossil  bones  and  possible  occupation evidence.

The ability  of resource  management authorities  to face these kinds  of  very  different  challenges  is  usually constrained  by   factors  of   insecure  tenure   and/or inappropriate ownership  or  custodianship  arrangements. It would  be widely  assumed that,  in the ACT and in the Googong Reserve,  ownership of the karst resources by the Commonwealth and  the vesting  of their management in the ACT  Parks   and  Conservation  Service  would  serve  to virtually assure their long-term conservation. But  these   factors,  while   advantageous,  do  not  in themselves guarantee  such security. 
 Our ability to meet the above  challenges is  dependent  far  more  upon  our willingness to  adopt  a  systematic  approach  to  karst management  (after  Davey  1980)  and  in  particular  to address the need for:

* an  improvement in  the level  of understanding  of the special  values,   dynamics   and   resource   management requirements of  karst systems  among managers,  visitors and the general community;
* improvement  of management  powers by  incorporation of karsts in  dedicated and secure  conservation reserves and by protection from   inappropriate development;
*  collection   of  baseline   resource  data,   on-going monitoring and  incorporation of  research findings  into management strategies;
* preparation  of conservation  and interpretation  plans for karst  areas,  with  due  consultation  of  community interests; and
*  commitment   to  karst   management  objectives   that emphasise  education   and   scientific   enquiry   above development.

We have  not had  an enviable history of karst  management in the ACT - most of our karsts were drowned or buried to provide the  Nation with  a showpiece  capital city;  our only remaining  caves  have  been  degraded  to  provided recreation; and a world-renowned natural bridge in nearby NSW was almost drowned to provide drinking water. From the  high ground  of hindsight  past  management  of these karst  areas might  be criticised  as ill-informed, reactive and inconsistent.  With establishment of the ACT Parks and Conservation Service, it is an appropriate time to commence  to redress  (or at least not repeat) some of the previous  mistakes.   We need  to adopt  a management style that  is more positive, systematic, resource-driven and consultative  if we are to identify and implement the most appropriate balance of preservation and use.

Planning for  our karsts  and their environs will address their special and sensitive values by observance of sound principles and  practices (as  in Butz  and Worboys 1980) and will incorporate classification of caves according to nationally-accepted categories and criteria (Davey et al. 1982). Wherever  possible,  these  will  be  embodied  in statutory plans of management which are subject to public and Parliamentary  scrutiny.   This  systematic  approach should complement  karst management  efforts by  the  NSW National Parks  and Wildlife Service in areas adjacent to the ACT  and  elsewhere  in  the  South  Eastern  Region. Through such energetic attention to the protection of the resource and the education of our visitors, the ACT Parks and Conservation  Service will  be able  to make  its own significant contribution  to conservation of the nation’s scarce karst resources.

Acknowledgements

I am  indebted to  Andy Spate  and Adrian Davey for their significant contributions  to preparation  of this paper, and to  staff of  the ACT  Parks and Conservation Service who have  received it  so enthusiastically. Library staff of the  Bureau of  Mineral Resources,  the Department  of Territories  and   the  National   Library  of  Australia provided valuable assistance.

References

AUSTRALIAN HERITAGE  COMMISSION (unpubl.) Data file - ACT and Jervis Bay (computer printout)
BARZ, RK  and WINSTON-GREGSON,  JH (1982)    Murrumbidgee River  Corridor   2:   the   second   part   of   an archeological survey for the NCDC (unpubl.)
BEST, RK and HENDERSON, GAM (1968) Geology and foundation conditions  at   the  Secretariat   Building   site, Canberra, Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust. Record 1968/111
BRENNAN, Martin  (1907) Reminiscences of gold fields, and elsewhere in  New South  Wales; covering a period of forty-eight years  service as  an officer of police, Brooks, Sydney, p.208
BRIGGS, JD  and LEIGH, JH (1985) Delineation of important habitats of  rare and threatened plan species in the Australian  Capital  Territory;  a  National  Estate Grants Project - Final report May 1985 (unpubl.)
BUTZ, Mark and WORBOYS, Graeme (1980) Principles of karst management in  ROBINSON, AC (ed.) Cave Management in Australia III, pp.49-71
BUTZ, Mark  (1987) The  lost karsts of Canberra (for 22nd Annual  Conf.  Inst.  Aust.  Geographers,  Canberra, August 1987)
CARNE, JW  and JONES, LJ (1919) The limestone deposits of New South  Wales, Geol.  Surv. N.S.W. Miner. Resour. 25
CURRIE,  JM   (1825)  Journal  of  an  excursion  to  the southward of  Lake George  in  New  South  Wales  in FIELD, Barron (ed.) 1825 Geographical memoirs on New South Wales (John Murry, London) pp 367-381
DALGARNO, JJ  and MINTY, AE (1983) Water. Chapter five in ANDREWS, WC  et al.  Canberra’s engineering heritage (Canberra Div., Inst. of Engineers Aust.)
DAVEY, Adrian  (1980) Some  considerations for systematic resource management  of caves and karst in ROBINSON, AC (ed.) Cave Management in Australia III, pp 7-15
DAVEY, AG  (ed.) (1984)  Evaluation Criteria for the Cave and Karst  Heritage of  Australia -  Report  of  the Australian   Speleological    Federation    national Heritage Assessment Study. Helicite 15(2)3-40
DAVEY, Adrian,  WORBOYS, Graeme  AND STIFF,  Clyde (1982) Report on  cave classification  in WATSON,  JR (ed.) Cave Management  in Australia IV, pp 11-18 [in error as WORBOYS, DAVEY & STIFF]
DEVERSON,  SCHOLTENS,  BOMBARDIER  (1986)    Murrumbidgee River Park  - Cotter  and Casuarina  Sands landscape development: report to NCDC - March 1986 (unpubl.)
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GILLIGAN, LB (1975) Part 1. Mine data sheets to accompany metallogenic  map,  Canberra  1:250,000  sheet  (NSW Geol. Survey, Sydney) with map
GRAY, MR  (1973) Survey of the spider fauna of Australian caves Helictite 11(3): 47-75
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Personal Communications

DAVEY,  A.G.   Applied   Natural   Resource   Management, Canberra.
FEINT, J. Heritage and  Museums Unit,  Parks & Recreation Division, Department of Territories, Canberra.
HIGGINBOTHAM, P.,  Manager, Googong  Foreshores  Reserve, ACT  Parks   and  Conservation   Service,  Department  of Territories, Canberra.
HOPE, J.H.  Divisional Manager,  Cultural  Resources  and Information  Services,  NSW  National  Parks  &  Wildlife Service, Sydney;  formerly Department of Prehistory, ANU, Canberra.
SPATE, A.P.  Investigations Officer (Karst), NSW National Parks &  Wildlife  Service,  Queanbeyan;  formerly  CSIRO Division of Land Use Research, Canberra.
TIDEMANN, C.R.  Senior  Tutor,  Department  of  Forestry, Australian  National   University,   Canberra;   formerly Department of Zoology, ANU, Canberra.